Masters and Johnson (1966) posed a crucial question: "Can that one facet of our lives, affecting more people in more ways than any other physiological response other than those necessary to our existence, be allowed to continue without benefit of objective, scientific analysis?" The fact remains that even though this century has witnessed some revolutionary studies in human sexuality (eg, Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1945; Kinsey et al., 1953; Masters & Johnson, 1966; Masters & Johnson, 1970; Tavris & Sadd, 1975; Hite, 1976; Michael et al., 1990; Janus & Janus, 1993), the area is still considered fairly taboo by many researchers, and we therefore have far too many questions and too few answers about all areas of human sexuality. One area that has been particularly neglected is sexuality in the elderly. Considering that today the elderly are living longer and that their segment of the population is increasing more than any other, more emphasis ought to be placed on their quality of life, which for many includes sexuality (see Schlesinger, 1996).
Furthermore, throughout most of the history of sexological research,
and all of the history of research on sexuality in the elderly, very few significant and
plausible theories have been offered to help conceptualise, explain, and predict the wide
range of sexual behaviour in the human species. To date, Freud's (1905/1962)
psychoanalytic theory remains one of the few such comprehensive theories-but it does not
focus much on the specific aspects of sexuality in older persons. To temper this concern,
this assignment will attempt to apply two theoretical approaches-symbolic interactionism
and age stratification theory-to the study of sexuality in the ageing. These two different
theoretical approaches appear well-suited for this area of scholarship.
As opposed to theories concerned with the effects of larger, generally fixed social forces, symbolic interactionism is a middle-range, microsystems theory that focusses on the flexible, ever-changing interactions amongst people in everyday life (Blumer, 1969). It assumes that people are active agents participating and interacting with one another in an active social world (as opposed to being mere reactors to external social forces). In this sense, individual actions are considered joint acts between an "actor" and others, and not merely as rational, individual choices. Social interaction is seen as a process of constant adjustment and organisation. This active social interaction in turn comprises society, with larger social forces emerging from these social interactions. Also central to this theory is the notion that instead of reacting directly to others' actions, individuals react to their own interpretation of the meaning of these actions. In this sense, people communicate with one another not directly, but through the creation, use, and interpretation of symbols. These symbols are seen as being in constant flux.
Symbolic interactionism further proposes that the self is created through social interactions and is constantly adjusting through further social interactions. It sees the self emerging not just from within the individual, but from the interpretation of how other people see that individual and how s/he responds to and develops his/her own responses to this interpretation. In this sense, symbolic interactionism aims to understand the development of the self and how individuals develop a personal biography.
Age stratification theory is a middle-range, macrosystems theoretical approach that attempts to examine age cohorts throughout the life cycle. Riley, Foner, & Waring (1972) describe four major propositions of age stratification theory. First, population is considered a structure consisting of people of different ages, groups of which are called "cohorts". Individuals aged 40-55, for example, may be considered a cohort. Each cohort can be seen as representing what we often consider a "generation". Second, age is an important determinant of which individuals will enter into which roles. For instance, North American children between 5-18 are usually expected to adopt the role of "student", while older individuals are expected to enter the workforce and adopt the role of "worker".
A third element of age stratification theory involves consideration of the ways individuals are socialised into and out of these roles. Young children are socialised into the role of "student" both before entering school and even more strongly while they are already in school. While in school, they are also socialised to eventually enter the workforce.
Lastly, and most importantly in the consideration of sexuality in
later life, is the proposition that the norms and values of the era in which one cohort
grew up or lived have a significant influence on the course of the ageing of individuals
within that cohort. In fact, cohorts are often given labels which describe the historical
era that profoundly influenced them. For example, the 40-55 age cohort mentioned above is
often referred to as the "Baby Boom" generation. It represents individuals born
and raised in a post-World War II era, an era whose unique values and attitudes
significantly impacted their development, including their own attitudes and values. In
terms of sexuality, elderly individuals living in today's society can be seen as holding
different views of sexuality than did their counterpart cohorts of different eras.
Symbolic interactionism and age stratification theories are used in this assignment because even though they are dissimilar-one is a microsystems theory, the other a macrosystems-they appear to complement one another very well. The research data gained by adopting a microsystems approach can be further interpreted by adopting an age stratification approach, particularly as regards the historical influences on values and attitudes towards sexuality, which themselves have a direct impact on the interactions occurring in older individuals' sexual relationships.
Employing a symbolic interactionist perspective, sexuality in the elderly can be conceptualised in a number of ways. Foremost, sex can be considered more than merely a biological act of procreation or pleasure. It is a complex social interaction between two or more people. It is the dynamic interaction not only between one's own personal values, attitudes, personality dispositions, cognitions, wants, desires, and behaviours, but, more importantly, the interaction between these entities and those of one's sexual partner(s). Furthermore, sexual behaviours, including acts of courtship, foreplay, and coitus, can be interpreted not simply as means to ends, but as acts invested with meanings that are interpreted differently by different people. Together, social interactions relating to sexual acts and the meaning attached to these sexual acts can change over the life course, and may change significantly during older age.
Under symbolic interactionism, such meanings and interactions could be seen as changing in a number of ways, and as able to significantly influence the negotiations that occur between sexual partners, especially depending on the degree of correspondence that results between two or more partners' attitudes, desires, behaviours, and so forth. For example, a lack of correspondence might cause disagreements as to when, where, what kind, and how much sex will occur. Not only could this lead to sexual dissatisfaction, but it could also strain an entire relationship. Such discordance would be an important factor to consider, especially in light of Kaplan's (1979) observations that interactional difficulties may be just as troubling for a sexual relationship as such simpler factors as erectile or orgasmic difficulties caused by physical conditions (eg, Cooper, 1988; Sakheim et al., 1987; Schover & Jensen, 1988).
The meaning attached to sexual behaviours could be seen as one of the most pronounced factors that may come to differ between sexual partners. As individuals age, sex might no longer be seen as a reproductive act, but might come to be appreciated as an act of affection, intimacy, pleasure, or leisure. It might also be considered an act that reaffirms one's continued physical functioning or virility. If partners come to differ in the meanings they invest in these various aspects of sexuality, then the timing, amount, and quality of sex might change, leaving one or more of the partners dissatisfied or unfulfilled.
The shift in these meanings could be seen as the result of changes in one's personal traits and qualities and the degree to which a change in correspondence occurs between two or more partners' personal traits and qualities. Differing personal values, for instance, might influence not only how important a role sexuality plays in one's post-reproductive years, but could in turn determine one's attitudes towards what is "appropriate" sexual activity for older persons. Such attitudes might in turn influence not only the timing, amount, and quality of sexual activity that is preferred by a given partner, but also the partner one would actually choose in the first place.
Such values and attitudes could also be seen as intimately related to one's personality dispositions, which are shown to have a significant impact on the type and quality of sexual activity (eg, Byrne & Schulte, 1990). Aside from influencing qualities such as sexual spontaneity, the correspondence between the personality traits of sexual partners could also determine the degree to which personal values and attitudes might change in the future, under what circumstances, and whether such changes would facilitate a healthy sexual relationship or strain it.
Symbolic interactionism might also conceptualise sexuality in terms of its interaction with cognition. As individuals age, their cognitive capacities may also change, especially in the presence of various chronic conditions (see Schover & Jensen, 1988). Memory ability may fade; complex thinking may become impaired in cases of dementia; and various drugs may influence moods, the ability to concentrate, and changes in attention patterns (see Segraves, 1988). Such cognitive factors could be seen as impacting sexual relations in several ways. Individuals unable to remember the pleasures of sex with their partners might become more likely to lose interest in sex. An inability to concentrate or focus on a partner might impair the sustainment of erections or the presence and timing of orgasms (eg, Geer & Fuhr, 1976). This might lead to the interpretation of sexual activity as a tedious "chore" and promote an aversion to mutual sexual activity and a consequent preference for solitary sexual acts such as masturbation. Solitary sexual acts might in turn preclude the intimacy that is inherent in mutual sexual acts.
A discordance between any of these factors could be seen as having a significant impact on the construction and change of one's sense of self-something with which symbolic interactionist theory is quite concerned. To illustrate this notion, let us think about an important prerequisite for sexual activity-libido. As individuals age, libido may decrease. If libidos differ between two sexual partners, negotiations could become quite difficult, especially when one partner desires sex frequently and the other appears to have little interest. Not only could this strain sexual relations, but if the changes in libido are interpreted as being changes in attraction between two partners, changes in perception of self might occur. For example, a wife whose husband's libido is lower now than it was twenty years ago, might interpret what is often a biological inevitability as a slight against her own sexual self esteem. She might come to feel unattractive, unwomanly, or even useless as a partner or person.
In light of these factors, a researcher adopting a symbolic
interactionist perspective in the study of sexuality in later life might attempt to
systematically explore specific linkages between these factors and diagnosable sexual
disorders in order to bolster treatments for sexual dysfunctions. A researcher might ask,
for instance, Which personality or cognitive factors have the greatest impact on changes
in sexual activity and satisfaction? After identifying these factors, other researchers
could design studies to determine, for instance, which types of marital or sexual therapy
(see Caird & Wincze, 1977; Glick, Clarkin, & Kessler, 1987; Wincze & Carey,
1991) would be most potent in attempting to help clients cope with or alter these factors
(eg, Which techniques could improve the correspondence between the attitudes and
behaviours of two partners?).
The age stratification approach to the study of sexuality in later years might conceptualise sexuality as the result of powerful forces acting upon cohorts from different historical eras. It would attempt to examine historical influences on the sexual mores and attitudes on the sexual behaviours of older individuals of different eras. The influence of such historical changes is particularly remarkable when we consider the long-lasting effect that misguided sexual information has had on various cohorts throughout history.
Virtually all of the sexual information disseminated prior to the systematic research of Kinsey (1948, 1952) and Masters and Johnson (1966; 1970) was strongly influenced by the non-scientific opinions of medical doctors, religious leaders, and political figures (eg, Krafft-Ebing 1886/1965; Freud, 1905/1962; Ellis, 1906; see also Robert Koch Institute). Virtually none of these authors referred to sex in the older years, and it came to be assumed for many decades that older people are asexual and simply do not have sex. The influence of this is remarkable when we consider that even one of the largest contemporary studies in sexuality (Michael et al., 1990) examined sexuality only up to the age of 60-even though smaller studies clearly demonstrate that older people enjoy a very robust sex life (eg, Wiley & Bortz, 1996; Matthias et al., 1997).
Under the age stratification model, these attitudes could be seen as playing an integral role in the socialisation of elderly individuals, particularly as regards sexual roles. For example, it is still assumed that when individuals, particularly women, reach the end of their child-bearing years, they no longer engage in sex. They are socialised into the role of sexless grandparents through portrayals of sexless older people on television, in magazines, and in literature; through the lack of open discussion on sexuality in later life; and through the perpetuation of the image younger people have of older people as parents and caregivers, not as humans who can enjoy pleasure through sex.
The next cohort of older people will probably have been socialised differently in this regard, particularly with the growing attention the public pays to sex in later life, again through such avenues as media (eg, television portrayals of sexually-active older women, as in The Golden Girls, 227, and Who's the Boss?). Furthermore, age stratification theory would credit the increased attention given to sexual dysfunctions-as in advertisements for erectile disorder and anti-impotency drugs such as Viagra-for helping shift attitudes towards sexuality in later life.
Referring back to some of the issues illustrated in the discussion on symbolic interactionism, age stratification theory could be used to explain the impact of changing attitudes on the shift from the perception of sex as a biological act to sex as a negotiated social act which can occur throughout the entire life course. It can account for changes in the meaning of various aspects of sexuality, especially considering that historical attitudes have constrained the meaning of sex for different age groups. Furthermore, it can account for the changes in older individuals' conceptions of self through different historical periods.
A researcher adopting an age stratification approach to sexuality in
the elderly might wish to ask, Which agents of socialisation are the most potent in
socialising older individuals into believing sex is "inappropriate" or
"dirty" for their age group? Another researcher might wish to ask, How do
cultures differ in the means by which they socialise older individuals in terms of sex?
A symbolic interactionist approach to sexuality in later life is particularly appealing for a number of reasons. First, symbolic interactionism allows us to examine sexual relations in their own context, as it were-as a private, personal act occurring between two or more individuals. It allows for the true appreciation of the finer details of this personal act-details which might otherwise be lost if a grander or quantitative approach were employed.
This approach also allows us to appreciate the immense individual variability that can occur in sexual relationships, something that is also lost when adopting other approaches. Furthermore, symbolic interactionism takes into account the importance of what each individual brings to a sexual relationship. In this sense, it appreciates people as active sexual agents, as opposed to passive individuals who merely react to individual circumstances.
From a theoretical standpoint, because symbolic interactionism is concerned with individual interactions, research data derived by using this approach are meaningful and relevant not only to social researchers, but also to the individuals being studied. Moreoever, the "raw material" needed for this type of research-human beings in everyday settings-are readily available to researchers. For example, they are able to observe older couples discussing their values and attitudes towards sexuality and are able to directly ask them questions about their sexual behaviours. They are also able to recruit just about any participants who are willing to engage in research study.
Unfortunately, the symbolic interactionist approach is also somewhat lacking in well-developed concepts and models. It is a very subjective approach. However, this drawback is tempered by the fact that it allows for the study of individual people, and not simply aggregate groups of people. In this sense, it allows for a much richer analysis of the sexual behaviours of older persons.
However, research adopting a symbolic interactionist perspective can be quite time-consuming. Careful observation; the ability to pay attention to even the minutest aspects of social interactions; and the time it takes to interpret individuals' interactions can be quite burdensome for the researcher. Additional concerns are observer bias and the fact that not all individuals are forthcoming about their sexual values, attitudes, and behaviours if they know they are being researched. Finally, it is not uncommon that a researcher adopting this approach can get "lost in details" when describing phenomena such as interpersonal relations (as is evident in this assignment!). Nonetheless, for the quantity and quality of data it is able to produce, a symbolic interactionist approach is invaluable in furthering our understanding of sexuality in later life (and sexuality in general).
The age stratification approach is also appealing, particularly because it draws attention to the power of the values and norms of the era in which one is born and lives. In this sense, it looks beyond the individual. It allows us to appreciate the various means by which individuals are socialised into various sexual roles, and how this socialisation is influenced by the values and norms of the day. Without such an approach, we are unable to appreciate the impact misinformation and sexual propaganda (eg., Ellis, 1906) has on the development of sexual attitudes and behaviours, and the impact socialisation has on the development of "culturally-appropriate" sex roles for the elderly. Although sex is a highly personal, private act, we cannot ignore that, to varying degrees, the members of every sexual relationship bring to the sexual situation the norms and values of a particular historical era.
Since age stratification examines large cohorts of individuals, the limitation of this approach is, of course, a lack of detailed focus on individual, everyday sexual interactions. Consequently, the great variability in sexual behaviour is not appreciated as well as would be by adopting an approach such as symbolic interactionism. Another limitation is that researchers studying a cohort of which they themselves are also a part may be so profoundly influenced by the cultural norms and values common to that cohort that they may not fully recognise the impact of these norms and values on sexual relations. For instance, a researcher belonging to a cohort raised with the attitude that older people do not have as much sex as younger people might not ask research participants as many detailed questions about their sex lives as might a researcher belonging to a more enlightened cohort. Such a researcher might also inadvertently feel that older people do not like to talk about their sexuality, and might consequently be hesitant to ask research participants for very detailed information on their sex lives.
A final limitation is related to time. Sexual research is very much in its infancy, and we must wait several more decades before we can compare cohorts to determine the true impact of historical forces on sexual behaviour. Then again, since historical influence is a central proposition in this theory, the wait is well worth it.
From a personal standpoint, I feel both of these approaches are
equally important in advancing our knowledge of sexuality in the later years, because
although they differ in their scope of analysis, they complement one another quite well.
For the most part, quality, accurate research into sexuality,
including sexuality in the later years, has been lacking for a long time. In addition to a
lack of empirical data, there has also been a dearth of coherent theoretical approaches to
this area of social gerontology. This assignment has attempted to bridge this gap by
applying symbolic interactionist and age stratification theories to various aspects of
sexuality in later life. Symbolic interactionist theory allows for the conceptualisation
of sexuality as an ever-changing interpersonal exchange between two or more people in
everyday life. It helps us appreciate the varying meanings individuals invest in various
aspects of sexuality, and the mechanisms by which these meanings change. It also sheds
light on how these changes affect the development of the self. Age stratification theory
takes a wider perspective, allowing for the appreciation of historical norms and values on
the development of sexual attitudes and behaviours-including the adoption of sexual
roles-in different cohorts. Together, these two perspectives can offer us a richer, more
complete picture of sexuality in the ageing.
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Copyright © 2001, by Eddy M. Elmer
Permanent URL: http://www.eddyelmer.com/articles/sisfu.htm